Climate Matching Map
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1. Question 1
Yes
1
Very High
Although presumed to be native to extensive portions of tropical and subtropical Asia it is now naturalized in parts of Europe (Spain, Portugal), Asia (Japan, Singapore, Taiwan), the Caribbean (Cayman Islands), Australia, South America, Africa and parts of North America (Rojas-Sanduval, POWO).
In the United States it is generally considered native in the states of Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia, and naturalized elsewhere (USFWS).
In the United States it is generally considered native in the states of Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia, and naturalized elsewhere (USFWS).
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
2. Question 2
Yes
2
Medium
Yes, but very marginally outside of California. Using the Climate Matching Map the great majority of its naturalized range is not a climate match to California. Nonetheless, there are numerous documented naturalizations in California wildlands (Calflora, GISD). The Calflora database includes over 200 observations, with almost all in naturalized conditions (Calflora). The few areas where it is naturalized and with a climate match to California are generally three or four sites out of many others adjacent, but outside of a climate match (Cal-IPC). These include a handful of sites in Australia (near Adelaide), western China, Lebanon, Portugal and Spain. Nonetheless, because there are at least a few climate matched areas I must answer this as a YES.
Council, California Invasive Plant. 2026. “Climate Match Map for \textitBacopa Monnieri.”
Database, Global Invasive Species. 2025. “Species Profile: \textitBacopa Monnieri”. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1784.
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Taxon Report: Bacopa Monnieri”. Berkeley, California. www.calflora.org.
3. Question 3
Yes
2
Medium
Bacopa monnieri is considered invasive by government agencies and other organizations in some regions of the world, despite being native to many tropical/subtropical areas (Rojas-Sanduval). These authorities include the CABI (Rojas-Sanduval), and the Global Invasive Species Database (Global Invasive Species) which list it as invasive in places like Japan, Singapore, Spain, Portugal, and the Cayman Islands.
However, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) list the species as an "Uncertain Risk". Additionally, USDA APHIS has not officially declared Bacopa monnieri as a federal noxious weed, though it is recognized as a native aquatic weed that can "behave invasively" in certain Florida habitats.
In addition, it is discussed as having "invasive potential" in Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Saint Lucia, Martinique, and western Australia (Rojas-Sanduval, Hussey, Souza, Global Invasive Species).
In summary, some agencies and organizations have declared the species invasive in certain regions and others have not. But given that at least two orgainizations (CABI, GISD) have declared in as invasive it warrants a YES answer.
However, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) list the species as an "Uncertain Risk". Additionally, USDA APHIS has not officially declared Bacopa monnieri as a federal noxious weed, though it is recognized as a native aquatic weed that can "behave invasively" in certain Florida habitats.
In addition, it is discussed as having "invasive potential" in Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Saint Lucia, Martinique, and western Australia (Rojas-Sanduval, Hussey, Souza, Global Invasive Species).
In summary, some agencies and organizations have declared the species invasive in certain regions and others have not. But given that at least two orgainizations (CABI, GISD) have declared in as invasive it warrants a YES answer.
“Weed Risk Assessment for Bacopa Australis V.C. Souza (Scrophulariaceae)”. 2013. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads….
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
Database, Global Invasive Species. 2025. “Species Profile: \textitBacopa Monnieri”. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1784.
Hussey, B., G. Keighery, J. Dodd, S. Lloyd, and R. Cousens. 2007. Western Weeds: A Guide to the Weeds of Western Australia. 2nd ed. Victoria Park, WA: The Weeds Society of Western Australia (Inc.).
4. Question 4
Yes
3
Medium
I am answering YES, but with medium confidence. Of the areas where the species is listed as invasive (Portugal and Spain in particular) (Rojas-Sanduval, GISD) ) Bacopa monnieri observations there are +/-20 records on the Climate Match tool. Of those there are only two rather disjunct records that fall barely within a climate match area. I do not know the specifics of these two points, but must assume they are valid and therefore must provide a YES answer to the question ". . invasive in the U.S. or world in a similar climate".
I am not considering parts of the world where the plant may have "invasive potential", such as Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Saint Lucia, Martinique, and western Australia. (PFAF, Hussey).
I am not considering parts of the world where the plant may have "invasive potential", such as Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Saint Lucia, Martinique, and western Australia. (PFAF, Hussey).
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
Database, Global Invasive Species. 2025. “Species Profile: \textitBacopa Monnieri”. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1784.
Hussey, B., G. Keighery, J. Dodd, S. Lloyd, and R. Cousens. 2007. Western Weeds: A Guide to the Weeds of Western Australia. 2nd ed. Victoria Park, WA: The Weeds Society of Western Australia (Inc.).
Future, Plants for a. 2026. “Bacopa Monnieri: Herb of Grace, Brahmi, Smooth Water Hyssop.”
5. Question 5
No
0
High
Bacopa rotundifolia is a sister species that has been identified as a naturalized non-native species in California (Kersh/Jepson eFlora) , primarily within agricultural and managed water systems, and a plant of some concern. However, it as yet is not declared an invasive by any agency.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) reports it as a nuisance species in California’s landscaped waterways, specifically mentioning golf course ponds. Calflora also reports it as a naturalized species (Calflora).
The California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) has it on its "Pending Assessment" list. While it is recognized as a serious agricultural weed, as of 2026, it is not currently listed on the main Cal-IPC Inventory because it has not been documented as having major impacts in natural wildlands.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) reports it as a nuisance species in California’s landscaped waterways, specifically mentioning golf course ponds. Calflora also reports it as a naturalized species (Calflora).
The California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) has it on its "Pending Assessment" list. While it is recognized as a serious agricultural weed, as of 2026, it is not currently listed on the main Cal-IPC Inventory because it has not been documented as having major impacts in natural wildlands.
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (\textitBacopa Monnieri)”. https://www.fws.gov/media/ecological-risk-screening-summary-coastal-wat….
Dolan, Rebecca W. 2004. “Conservation Assessment for Roundleaf Water-Hyssop (Bacopa Rotundifolia (Michx.) Wettst.)”. USDA Forest Service, Eastern Region. http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fsm91_054397.pdf.
California, Invasive Plant Council. 2026. “Pending Assessment List”. Berkeley, CA.
Future, Plants for a. 2026. “Bacopa Monnieri: Herb of Grace, Brahmi, Smooth Water Hyssop”. pfaf.org.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Bacopa Rotundifolia”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=15391.
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Calflora: Information on California Plants for Education, Research and Conservation [web Application]”. Berkeley, California. https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=1042.
6. Question 6
No
0
Very High
Of the hundreds or thousands of naturalized records on the Cal-IPC Climate Match Map only three or four match a California climate. Expanding this and considering records from all of the plants presumed native range produces similar results. It is a poor climate match for California (see Cal-IPC Climate Match map above). Nonetheless, the over 200 Calflora observations in California are nearly all of naturalized colonies in wildlands (Calflora).
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Taxon Report: Bacopa Monnieri”. Berkeley, California. www.calflora.org.
7. Question 7
Yes
1
Very High
Yes, Bacopa monnieri is documented by U.S. Fish and Wildlife (USFWS), CABI (Rojas-Sanduval) and others (MREC/Univ. of Florida) to displace native plants and dominate communities by forming dense monospecific mats in regions where it has established as an invasive species. In aquatic habitats where it is introduced it rapidly forms monospecific dense mats that can outcompete and replace existing native vegetation (USFWS).
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
MREC, University. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri - Herb-of-Grace.”
8. Question 8
No
0
Very High
This species is a very low growing and evergreen, mat-forming plant of wet environments (Greg Editorial, Jepson EFlora, USFWS).
Team, Greg Editorial. 2024. “Bacopa: An Annual Plant - Lifecycle and Growth Patterns”. greg.app.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Bacopa Monnieri”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. ucjeps.berkeley.edu.
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
9. Question 9
No
0
High
There is no evidence suggesting it is poisonous or a health risk to humans, animals, fish or livestock. A medical study states "Concerning safety, Bacopa monnieri has been found to be generally non-toxic, with no serious side effects reported." (Gosciniak)
Gościniak, A. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Neuroactive Effects, Safety of Use and the Search for Improved Bioavailability”. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17111939.
10. Question 10
No
0
Very High
Bacopa monnieri is a very low growing herbaceous plant of wet substrates. It does not produce "thickets" in the traditional sense. It does form thin, dense, and monospecific mats that alter its environment (USFWS, Greg Editorial, Jepson EFlora). But there is no published evidence of it altering the movement of animals, livestock or humans.
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
Team, Greg Editorial. 2024. “Bacopa: An Annual Plant - Lifecycle and Growth Patterns”. greg.app.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Bacopa Monnieri”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. ucjeps.berkeley.edu.
11. Question 11
Yes
1
Very High
Yes, Bacopa monnieri reproduces and spreads extensively through vegetative means. This is its primary method of propagation. Its vegetative reproduction and spread is from stem fragmentation, stoloniferous runners, and nodal rooting (Phcogj, CABI, Bhalerao, Manivannan)
Sudhakaran, Madathilparambil. 2020. “Botanical Pharmacognosy of Bacopa Monnieri (Linn.) Pennell”. Pharmacognosy Journal 12: 1559-72. doi:10.5530/pj.2020.12.214.
Bhalerao, Surbhi, Avinash Jondhale, Smita Chavan, Sagar Bhagwat, Bharat Magar, and Nisha Suryawanshi. 2025. “A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON MICROPROPAGATION OF BACOPA MONNIERI L”. The Bioscan 20: 20-26. doi:10.63001/tbs.2025.v20.i01.S.I(1).pp20-26.
Manivannan, A., and P. Soundararajan. 2022. “Biotechnology for Propagation and Secondary Metabolite Production in Bacopa Monnieri”. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 106: 1837-54. doi:10.1007/s00253-022-11820-6.
12. Question 12
Yes
1
Very High
Yes, this is clearly the preferred and most likely way in which the plant reproduces itself (Rojas-Sandoval-CABI, Manivannan, Behera, Bhalerao).
Bhalerao, Surbhi, Avinash Jondhale, Smita Chavan, Sagar Bhagwat, Bharat Magar, and Nisha Suryawanshi. 2025. “A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON MICROPROPAGATION OF BACOPA MONNIERI L”. The Bioscan 20: 20-26. doi:10.63001/tbs.2025.v20.i01.S.I(1).pp20-26.
Manivannan, A., and P. Soundararajan. 2022. “Biotechnology for Propagation and Secondary Metabolite Production in Bacopa Monnieri”. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 106: 1837-54. doi:10.1007/s00253-022-11820-6.
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
Behera, S., A. Pant, M. Mallick, P. Jena, and C. Pradhan. 2015. “An Efficient Micropropagation Protocol of Bacopa Monnieri (L.) Pennell through Two-Stage Culture of Nodal Segments”. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants 21: 113-21. doi:10.1007/s12298-014-0261-2.
13. Question 13
Yes
1
High
Yes, Bacopa monnieri does produce viable seed. However its seed production does not significantly contribute to its spread. Biological constraints prevent these seeds from being a primary mode of reproduction (Sharma, USFWS).
These constraints include extremely short seed viability (loosing viability within two months), low germination and survival, and seed dormancy periods (Sharma, Sharma).
Because of these constraints propagation is primarily from vegetative rhizomes or runners.
In spite of seed not being a primary means of propagation, the question only asks if the plant commonly produces viable seed, which must be answered YES.
These constraints include extremely short seed viability (loosing viability within two months), low germination and survival, and seed dormancy periods (Sharma, Sharma).
Because of these constraints propagation is primarily from vegetative rhizomes or runners.
In spite of seed not being a primary means of propagation, the question only asks if the plant commonly produces viable seed, which must be answered YES.
Sharma, Neelam, Rakesh Singh, and J. Rana. 2016. “In Vitro Propagation and Conservation of Bacopa Monnieri L”. Edited by Maria Germana and Maurizio Lambardi 1391. New York, NY: Springer: 153-71. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3332-7_11.
Sharma, Neelam, R. Satsangi, Rekha Pandey, Rakesh Singh, Neha Kaushik, R. Tyagi, and R. Gowthami. 2012. “In Vitro Conservation of Bacopa Monnieri (L.) Using Mineral Oil”. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC) 111: 291-301. doi:10.1007/s11240-012-0194-x.
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
14. Question 14
Yes
1
Medium
Specific annual seed counts per plant are vague. However Bacopa monnieri can be a prolific seed producer under good conditions (Sheela). Each fruit capsule contains numerous minute seeds, at an average of perhaps 62 seeds per capsule (Sheela). This makes the total annual seed potential of a single vigorous plant potentially thousands of seeds per year (Manivannan, Greg).
This is a result of its propensity to flower throughout the year in mild climates (Kersh/Jepson). Calflora (Calflora) and the Jepson eflora (Kersh/Jepson) note flowering year-round.
This is a result of its propensity to flower throughout the year in mild climates (Kersh/Jepson). Calflora (Calflora) and the Jepson eflora (Kersh/Jepson) note flowering year-round.
Sheela, V., S. Shyla, and J. Paulose. 2011. “Reproductive Biology of Bacopa Monnieri”. Journal of Tropical Agriculture 49: 106-8.
Manivannan, A., and P. Soundararajan. 2022. “Biotechnology for Propagation and Secondary Metabolite Production in Bacopa Monnieri”. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 106: 1837-54. doi:10.1007/s00253-022-11820-6.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Bacopa Rotundifolia”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=15391.
Team, Greg Editorial. 2024. “Bacopa: An Annual Plant - Lifecycle and Growth Patterns”. greg.app.
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Taxon Report: Bacopa Monnieri”. Berkeley, California. www.calflora.org.
15. Question 15
No
0
High
Bacopa monnieri exhibits relatively low germination levels, which is a reason it relies heavily on vegetative reproduction. Research has documented natural germination percentages as low as 12.60%. An important constraint to germination is short seed viability period of only about two months. Even with germination, seedlings have high mortality rates (CABI, Wei, Rai).
2024. “CABI: Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
Wei, Qiantong, and . 2026. “Analysis of the Factors Affecting Germination of Cnidium Monnieri [Comparative Data on B. Monnieri Germination]”. Plants 14: 3801. doi:10.3390/plants14243801.
Rai, S., and . 2025. “Germination Response and Seedling Growth Performance of Bacopa Monnieri under Varying Environmental Conditions”. Rhizosphere 34: 100953. doi:10.1016/j.rhisph.2025.100953.
16. Question 16
Yes
1
Very High
Yes. Bacopa monnieri begins its reproductive phase approximately 11 to 17 weeks after germination, with seed being produced shortly therafter. Other sources indicate seedlings generally take between 75 and 85 days (approx. 11–12 weeks) to produce the first flowers after sowing. And another study suggests as little as 6 to 12 weeks under optimal conditions. (Vikaspedia, Plant Cultivation, Pinetree, Team Greg)
2024. “Vikaspedia: Bacopa Monnieri”. en.vikaspedia.in.
Information, Plant Cultivation. 2026. “Brahmi Plant Cultivation Information”. www.apnikheti.com.
Seeds, Pinetree. 2024. “Blutopia Bacopa”. https://www.superseeds.com/products/blutopia-bacopa.
Team, Greg Editorial. 2024. “Bacopa: An Annual Plant - Lifecycle and Growth Patterns”. greg.app.
17. Question 17
Yes
1
Very High
Yes. Bacopa monneiri flowers and presumably sets seed year-round in California. Both Calflora (Calflora) and the Jepson eflora (Kersh) confirm this.
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Taxon Report: Bacopa Monnieri”. Berkeley, California. www.calflora.org.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Bacopa Monnieri”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. ucjeps.berkeley.edu.
18. Question 18
No
0
High
No. Bacopa seed is primarily dispersed by water. I find no documentation of wild animal or domestic animal seed dispersal.
No references cited.
19. Question 19
Yes
1
Very High
Yes. Bacopa monnieri propagules are frequently dispersed great distances by water. Water is the dominant vector for spread of the species, dispersing both vegetative fragments and seeds (USFWS). Vegetative fragments are highly buoyant, often remaining viable and floating for weeks or even months, allowing them to travel kilometers downstream in rivers, streams, or irrigation ditches (USFWS).
Although not the dominant method of dispersal, seeds can also be carried by water currents over significant distances. Wind is not an important dispersal method USFWS).
Although not the dominant method of dispersal, seeds can also be carried by water currents over significant distances. Wind is not an important dispersal method USFWS).
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
20. Question 20
Yes
1
Medium
Yes, Bacopa monnieri propagules (both seeds and vegetative fragments) are frequently dispersed long distance by human means. It is widely grown in cultivation, both horticulturally (Rojas/CABI) and agriculturally (UCANR). The plant is used in managed agricultural systems, including rice fields (Kersh/Jepson, Calflora).
The small seeds and small, easily detached stem fragments can adhere to mud. This mud can be tracked long distances on the tires of vehicles, agricultural machinery, footwear and clothing of humans, and the feet of domestic animals or livestock that move through these habitats (USFWS, Calflora). Boats and fishing equipment also likely move vegetative fragents between waterways as they become tangled in boat propellers, trailers, and fishing lines (Kersh/Jepson, CAL-IPC).
The small seeds and small, easily detached stem fragments can adhere to mud. This mud can be tracked long distances on the tires of vehicles, agricultural machinery, footwear and clothing of humans, and the feet of domestic animals or livestock that move through these habitats (USFWS, Calflora). Boats and fishing equipment also likely move vegetative fragents between waterways as they become tangled in boat propellers, trailers, and fishing lines (Kersh/Jepson, CAL-IPC).
Program, University. 2026. “Waterhyssops: Bacopa Rotundifolia and Bacopa Monnieri”. ipm.ucanr.edu.
Rojas-Sandoval, Julissa. 2025. “Bacopa Monnieri (water Hyssop)”. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.112638.
Fish, U.S., and Wildlife Service. (2026) 2024. “Ecological Risk Screening Summary: Coastal Waterhyssop (Bacopa Monnieri).”
Database, The Calflora. 2026. “Taxon Report: Bacopa Monnieri”. Berkeley, California. www.calflora.org.
Kersh, K., and J. Strother. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Bacopa Monnieri”. Edited by Jepson Project. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. ucjeps.berkeley.edu.
Council, California Invasive Plant. 2026. “Invasive Plant Inventory: Mapping and Propagule Vectors”. Berkeley, CA: Cal-IPC. www.cal-ipc.org.
Evaluation Notes
The species had a relative abundance of reasearch and documentation.
Total PRE Score
17
20
85
